Charlemagne’s forced Christianization of the Saxons resulted in an estimated 100,000 to 200,000 deaths.
The colonization of the Americas by Christian European powers resulted in millions of deaths due to forced Christianization.
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Torturing and execution of witches in medieval miniature, 14th century. Atrocities like witch hunts were often justified by religious authorities. The list of victims who were tortured or killed in the name of Christianity is long and tragic.
The Crusades (1096–1272)
The Crusades stand as one of the most infamous examples of the Church’s endorsement of violence. Framed as holy wars to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim control, these campaigns left a devastating toll on all sides. The First Crusade alone resulted in an estimated 1.7 million deaths. The Sack of Jerusalem in 1099, where Crusaders massacred Muslims, Jews, and even Eastern Christians indiscriminately, epitomizes the brutality of these campaigns. Later Crusades, including the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, further demonstrate the Church’s willingness to sanction violence for religious and political ends.
Death toll: Estimated at 1–3 million overall
Religious wars in Europe (16th–17th centuries)
The Thirty Years’ War, the most devastating of these conflicts, caused approximately 4–8 million deaths, including deaths from violence, famine, and disease. Other religious wars, such as the French Wars of Religion, contributed 2–4 million additional deaths.
Total death toll: 6–12 million.
The Inquisition (12th–19th centuries)
The Inquisition targeted heretics, Jews, Muslims, Protestants, and other dissenters, using torture, imprisonment, and executions to enforce orthodoxy. In Spain alone, it is estimated that 3,000–5,000 people were executed. Beyond the immediate deaths, the Inquisition created a climate of fear that stifled intellectual and cultural progress.
Spain: Estimates vary between 3,000–5,000 executions.
Broader Europe: Including other inquisitorial courts, death tolls reach 15,000–25,000, with many more imprisoned or tortured.
Forced conversions in Africa and Asia
The Spanish and Portuguese conquests in South America resulted in millions of deaths among indigenous peoples through violence, forced labor, and disease. While not solely the Church’s doing, its moral responsibility lies in its role as an enabler and ideological supporter of these atrocities. Missionary campaigns during colonial expansion also led to the forced conversion and displacement of indigenous populations. In many cases, resistance was met with violence, as colonial powers justified their actions through papal decrees like Dum Diversas (1452).
Death toll: 10–15 million indigenous people died, primarily due to forced labor and introduced diseases, although a significant portion resulted from violent campaigns justified by religious rhetoric.
Suppressions of heretical movements
Movements like the Cathars and Huguenots were brutally suppressed, with entire communities massacred under Church orders.
Albigensian Crusade: 200,000–1 million deaths.
Other movements (e.g., Huguenots

Tens of thousands killed, including the St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre (1572), where an estimated 5,000–30,000 Huguenots were murdered in France.